Objective: Craving is the central core of addiction and the reason for substance abuse continuation and also returning to addiction after treatment. In order to identify the effecting factors on craving, this study was performed to determine the role of self-compassion, cognitive self-control and illness perception in predicting the craving levels in people with substance dependency. 

Objective: Personality is the most important infrastructure factor in addiction, and substance abusers have certain personal weaknesses that make them vulnerable to addiction. This study examined the role of sensation-seeking and coping strategies in predicting drug addiction in high school students. 

Objective: Addiction is one of the most vulnerable social issues and the tendency to it involve several factors, including psychosocial stressors (life unpleasant events), and inability to deal with these stressors and the belief that drug use will lead to the desired result. This study was conducted to determine the relationship between psychosocial stressors and vulnerability to drug abuse among students.

Methods: This research was a correlational study. In this study, 483 male students from Salmas City (West Azerbaijan Province) high schools were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling. Then, the questionnaire to identify people at risk of addiction and also perceptions of stressful events questionnaire were conducted to them. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and simultaneous regression analysis.Statistical analysis were performed using the SPSS 20.

Results: The results showed that among these variables, stressors associated with solution of unpleasant events have the greatest ability to predict vulnerability to addiction. Next, stressors related to lack, positively predict vulnerability to addiction.

Conclusion: The present study showed that psychosocial stressors can contribute to the vulnerability of adolescents to addiction.

Objective: The aim of the present research was to study the effect of the metacognition training on the metacognition approaches and the magnitude of disposition towards substance abuse as the result of learning various metacognition strategies. 

Objective: Methamphetamine consumers use can have more efficient practices, be hyperactive, and take sexual risk-taking behaviors. These behaviors are particularly remarkable in homosexuals.
Methods: The present study was conducted based on casual-comparative method in the field of descriptive studies. Since 1 March to 25 June 2015, a total of 62 MSM subjects were selected based on chain method and divided into two groups of methamphetamine dependent (n=30) and non-dependent ones (n=32). sexual behaviors were examined by sexual behavior questionnaire based on 3 dimensions of sexual thoughts, sexual pleasure, and sexual hyperactivity. High-risk
sexual behavior were evaluated by sexual behavior questionnaire, their relation with participants’ educational status, occupation, age, income, and number of sexual partners in the last 3 months were analyzed using the parametric T-test.
Results: Data analysis showed that methamphetamine dependent MSM were significantly higher (P<0.01) in all 3 components of sexual thoughts and pleasure, hyperactivity, and sexual behavior compared to non-dependent group. However, regarding age, there was no significant difference between age and sexual risk behavior (P=0.05).
Conclusion: methamphetamine dependent MSM have a unique experience of thoughts, pleasure, and aspirations and have high tendency to high-risk sexual behavior. These findings are consistent with the previous research on the importance of stimulant consumption and specifically methamphetamine in creating high-risk sexual behavior. Controlling methamphetamine use
plays an important role in preventing the transmission of infectious diseases.

Objective: The present research aimed to examine positive and negative beliefs about worry and tendency of students to drug abuse in terms of cross-level effect of school-bounding.
Methods: In this multi-level investigation, 1000 students of high schools were selected by means of multi-stage sampling technique. Then, they completed metacognitive questionnaire (MCQ), school-bounding and questionnaire of readiness for addiction scale (Wade & Butcher). The data were analyzed by cross-level analytical method.
Results: Findings showed that positive and negative metacognitive beliefs significantly affect students’ tendency to drug abuse and the variable of school-bounding has direct and significant effect on students’ tendency to drug abuse while it has indirect and significant effect on relationship among negative and positive beliefs about worry and tendency to drug abuse.
Conclusion: The results indicate the importance of taking multi-level approach toward tendency to drug abuse and addiction and using microlevel and macrolevel to define phenomenon of addiction and tendency to drug abuse.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effect of psychotherapy based on quality of life improvement (QoLI) on emotion regulation and the prevention of relapse in addicts under methadone maintenance therapy (MMT).
Methods: This research is a semi-experimental pretest-posttest study with a control group. Eight sessions of psychotherapy training based on QoLI were implemented for the experimental group; the control group received no intervention. We used difficulties in emotion regulation scale (DERS) to evaluate the participants. In the post-test phase, both control and experimental groups had a urine test for morphine. For data analysis, SPSS version 18 and the statistical methods of analysis of covariance and Chi-square test were used.
Results: There is a significant difference between the scores of the difficulties in emotion regulation between experimental and control groups in post-test (P˂0.05). Moreover, the rate of relapse among participants in the experimental group was significantly lower than that in the control group.
Conclusion: Psychotherapy based on QoLI was effective on the reduction of difficulties in emotion regulation and prevention of drug abuse relapse among addicts under MMT.

Objective: High risk behaviors among women can have detrimental consequences on this critical group of society and its increasing rate expose them to more serious dangers. In the light of these issues, the present study aimed to assess the prevalence of high risk behaviors of women living in Tehran. Hopefully, the study results may help take some measures to decrease high risk behaviors and solve some obstacles in preventing them.
Methods: The present study was a cross-sectional research. The statistical population of the study was all women residing in Tehran, Iran. A total of 403 participants were recruited through multistage cluster sampling from 5 zones of Tehran with the mean(SD) age of 21.75(2.43) years. Six parts of each zone and then 1 avenue from each part were selected randomly for completing the questionnaires. At each part after gaining participants’ informed consents, they were asked to fill in risky behavior survey questionnaire.

Results: The obtained data were analyzed using SPSS-20. Result indicated that the prevalence of driving without license, speed driving, using phone while driving, being under the influence of alcohol and substance abuse while driving, using motor­cycle without helmet, and sing a public transportation which driver is under the influence of drug or alcohol ranges from 2% to 7.7%., 3.2% to 6.7%, 2.7% to 9.7%, 0.7% to 2%., 0.5% to 6%, and 0.7% to 6.7% respectively in the last year. In regard to the prevalence of behaviors related to aggression, results demonstrated  the prevalence of carrying cold weapon at university or workplace in the last month, carrying cold weapon for protecting oneself in the last year, physical contact in last year, avoiding going to university or workplace because of feeling unsafe in the last year, exposing to bullying or be bulled in the last year ranged from 0.5% to 3.5%, 0.5% to 4.2%, 1.2% to 10.9%, 1% to 9.9%, and 1.2% to 8.2%, respectively. The prevalence of other high risk be­haviors, including suicidal thoughts in the last year, unsafe in­tercourse, alcohol use, cigarette, narcotics, stimulants and illegal drugs were 20.6%, 18.4%, 34.5%, 45.4%, and 14.1%, respectively.

Conclusion: Results demonstrating that the prevalence of high risk behaviors among women was almost similar to studies in European, American, other parts of world studies and also Iranian studies done before which show increasing rate of high risk behaviors especially addiction in women. As women are among the most vulnerable and at high risk groups, especially in Eastern societies, paying attention to their problems and searching for their causes, as well as developing solutions to help them is crucially important.

Objective: The present research aimed to study the relationship of identity styles and attitude toward delinquency with delinquent behavior of adolescents.
Methods: The present research is a cross sectional study. Data collection tools were Berzonsky’s identity style inventory, attitude toward delinquent behaviors questionnaire, and interviews, which were analyzed through simultaneous regression analysis using SPSS software. Study sample consisted of all 150 male adolescents who were detained in Tehran’s Center for Correction and Rehabilitation for committing delinquency/crime.
Results: Based on the obtained results, informational, normative, diffuse/avoidant, and commitment identity styles had significant associations with delinquency and positive and negative attitude toward delinquent behavior. In other words, identity styles and attitude toward delinquent behavior explained 57% of the changes in adolescents’ delinquent behavior (P<0.001).
Conclusion: Given the importance of family and social models in the formation of identity styles as well as positive and negative attitudes toward delinquency, it is necessary to offer individual and group courses of educating families and adolescents to control and prevent delinquent behavior as well as providing suitable models for adolescents to gain proper identities.

Objective: Suicide rate is unfortunately increasing in recent years and its assessment is a must. Most studies have evaluated different factors like personality, depression, or environment in suicide attempters but cognitive functions have been overlooked in suicide attempters. The current research aimed to evaluate a kind of cognitive function, namely attention in survivors of suicide. 
Methods: This case-control study was conducted in Tehran, Iran in 2015. Two groups of patients one with recent suicide attempts and the other one with no suicide attempt were compared in domains of focus of attention and attention bias. A total of 18 patients participated in each group. Instruments used for this research included questionnaire of focus of attention and simple stroop test software. Correlation of these 2 instruments was compared between groups. Data were analyzed by the independent t-test, ANOVA, and the Pearson correlation. 
Results: Mean age of suicide attempters was 29.5 years which was significantly lower than that in the control group and most of them were women. They spent more time in recognizing incongruent stimulus, congruent, and incongruent response. The time that was spent on experiment of incongruent stimulus, congruent, and incongruent response was significantly higher in suicide attempters. In suicide attempters, there was a significant correlation between number of congruent and incongruent errors with focus of attention.
Conclusion: Our results showed that attention as a cognitive function may be impaired in suicide attempters. Thus, it is necessary to recognize cognitive functions of suicide attempters along with other comorbid psychological factors for preventing future suicide attempts and eventually losing precious lives. 

Objective: Sexual addiction is a psychiatric disorder with unpleasant personal, inter-personal, legal, social, and physical outcomes for the patients. The cycle of this disorder is based on a false belief system known as early maladaptive schemas. This study aimed to examine and compare maladaptive cognitive schemas in sex addicts and normal people.
Methods: In the present study, a causal-comparative research method was undertaken. A total of 30 male sex addicts were selected using a snowball sampling method from the population of sex addicts in Tehran, Iran. Also, 30 normal men form the general population were selected as the control group. Control participants were matched with the patients with regard to demographic characteristics. Participants first completed the sexual addiction screening test-revised form and then the Young schema questionnaire (YSQ). The data were analyzed using the multivariate analysis of variance and stepwise discriminant analysis. All analyses were conducted using SPSS.
Results: The results indicated that sex addicts scored on the YSQ significantly higher than participants in the control group (P<0.001). Discriminant analysis revealed that 5 schemas, including dependency, mistrust, subjugation, vulnerability, and emotional deprivation were the best predictors of being a member of sexual addiction or non-sexual addiction groups (P<0.001).
Conclusion: Sex addicts have more and stronger early maladaptive schemas than normal people, so they can be distinguished from normal people according to the schemas of dependency, mistrust, subjugation, vulnerability, and emotional deprivation.

Objective: This research aimed to investigate the relationship of family affective climate, self-effectiveness, and personal-social adjustment variables with academic achievement of university students in Islamic Azad University, Ahvaz branch, Ahvaz, Iran. 
Methods: The research sample included 300 individuals (150 females and 150 males) who were selected through random stratified sampling method. California personal-social adjustment, Scherer and Adams self-effectiveness, and family’s affective climate questionnaires were administered to collect the data. Correlation coefficient and linear regression analysis were used for analyzing the data.
Results: The results of the data analysis indicated that there is a significant relationship between variables of family’s affective climate, personal and social adjustment, and self-effectiveness with academic achievement of students (P<0.001). Furthermore, the results of linear regression analysis indicated that the variables of self-effectiveness, personal and social adjustment, and family’s affective climate were significant predictors of academic achievement.
Conclusion: Improving student’s self-effectiveness, personal-social adjustment, and family’s affective climate may have positive influences on their academic achievement. 

Objective: The present study aimed to investigate the effects of group positive psychotherapy on increasing the happiness of mothers of children with cochlear implants. 
Methods: This study was a quasi-experimental research with pretest-posttest, a control group, and a 75-day follow-up design. A total of 20 mothers of children with cochlear implants treated in Baqiyatallah Hospital of Tehran City were randomly assigned to 2 groups (10 participants in the experimental and 10 participants in the control group). The experimental group received positive psychotherapy training during 10 sessions, 120 minutes in each session, one session per week and the control group received no interventions.
Results: Research tool was Oxford Happiness Inventory, which was administered in 2 pretest and posttest steps and then the obtained data were analyzed using analysis of covariance method (ANCOVA). The results of ANCOVA showed that group positive psychotherapy was effective on happiness of mothers of children with cochlear implant (F1, 17=31.13, P<0.01).
Conclusion: Group positive psychotherapy is an appropriate treatment approach to increase the happiness of mothers of children with cochlear implant. 

Objective: Previous studies have shown that menopausal women are more likely to experience depression. However, there are few studies that investigated the cognitive mechanism that may have a role in developing depression in menopausal women. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of life satisfaction in the relation between subjective evaluation of stressors and depression in the middle-aged menopausal women.
Methods: This was a cross-sectional study. A total of 107 female staff were selected by available sampling method from women aged 47 to 58 years, who were working at Shaid Beheshti University. The participants completed the Beck depression inventory (BDI-II), Kern lifestyle scale (KLS), and the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS). The data were analyzed by path analysis using hierarchical regression analysis. All statistics were done by SPSS 16. 
Results: The results indicated that subjective evaluation of stressors of control, self-esteem, and perfectionism that measured by KLS in menopausal women was associated with depression and mediated through their life satisfaction (P<0.01). The control, self-esteem, and perfectionism styles are indirect predictors of depression through life satisfaction.
Conclusion: Our findings suggested that subjective evaluation of stressors contributed to depression in menopausal women through affecting their life satisfaction. Objective sources of menopausal women stress (stressors) can be considered only as the potential sources of stress. These sources can lead to the real stress if the menopausal women perceives them as the threats to satisfaction of fundamental needs presented through their lifestyle.

Objective: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in preschoolers usually decreases their academic performance and disrupts parent-child interactions. The present study aimed at evaluating the effect of localized play therapy on preschoolers with ADHD.
Methods: The research method was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design and control group. Using a multi-stage random sampling method, and considering the inclusion criteria, a total of 24 mothers of preschoolers with ADHD were selected and randomly divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group participated in 10 sessions of localized play therapy (LPT) while the control group received no training. The instruments for data collection were Vanderbilt ADHD diagnosis parents rating scale (VADPRS) and clinical interviews. Data analysis was conducted using ANCOVA (analysis of covariance).
Results: The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the performance of the experimental and control groups at posttest, and upon the follow-up (P=<0.05).
Conclusion: LPT has positive effects on clinical symptoms of ADHD in preschool children. Hence, this method can be used to improve the mental health of children with ADHD and their parents. 

Objective: The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of transdiagnostic treatments on worry and rumination of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). 
Methods: The study population included all mothers of children with ASD in Isfahan City. Among mothers of children with ASD, 40 individuals were selected from those who obtained the highest scores in worry and rumination (At least one SD higher than the mean scores of the group) and were randomly divided into control and experimental groups. To collect data, the Rumination Response Scale (RRS) and Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) were used. The data were analyzed through multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) using SPSS-21. 
Results: The results indicated that the transdiagnostic treatment is effective on the rumination (F=26.91, df=1 and 36, P<0.001) and worry (F=10.86, df=1 and 36, P<0.002). 
Conclusion: Transdiagnostic treatment method can be an effective educational program for reducing emotional problems in mothers of children with ASD. 

Objective: This study was conducted to investigate the association between Islamic lifestyle and addiction potential among adolescents residing in Eslamshahr City, Iran.
Methods: This was a cross sectional study. The statistical population consisted of all students attending public high schools during 2012-2013 academic year in Eslamshahr City. The sample size was 211, who were selected through multi-stage cluster sampling method. The Islamic lifestyle and addiction potential questionnaires were used to collect data. 
Results: The Pearson correlation coefficient showed significant and inverse associations between the components of Islamic lifestyle and addiction potential, except for ‘timeliness’ (P < 0.01).
Conclusion: Those adopting an Islamic lifestyle are less prone to substance abuse.

Objective: In all societies, adolescents are the most vulnerable age group to addiction. Decision-making styles and attitude toward substances can play an important role in the tendency of adolescents to addiction. The aim of the current study was to investigate the role of decision-making styles and attitude toward substances in predicting the potential addiction among adolescents.
Methods: In this descriptive study, a total of 546 adolescents participated from different high schools in Lorestan Province, Iran that were selected through multiple cluster sampling method. The participants were asked to complete different questionnaires of demographic characteristics, decision-making styles, attitude toward substance, and potential addiction. The obtained data were analyzed through SPSS 16. The Pearson correlation coefficient and regression analysis were used for determining the relationships between the study variables.
Results: The results of the study indicated that general attitude; beliefs; emotions; readiness for action; avoidant, spontaneous and dependent decision-making styles have significant positive correlations with potential addiction. While potential addiction is correlated negatively with rational and intuitive decision-making styles. Also, the results of regression analysis showed that potential addiction is predictable by the components of the decision-making styles and attitude toward substances. Multiple regression analysis indicated that components of the decision-making styles and attitude toward substances significantly predicted 25.1% and 20.7% of the variance of potential addiction, respectively.
Conclusion: The results of this study showed that decision-making styles and attitude toward substance can explain a high degree of variability to potential addiction among adolescents.Accordingly, teaching rational decision-making style and negative attitudes to substances may lead to improvements in the prevention and treatment of addiction in adolescents.

Objective: Youth smoking has long been a major concern at individual, familial, and national levels. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the role of parent-child relationship in the smoking behavior and smoking intensity among college students. We also aimed to investigate gender-specific variations in the association between mother-child and father-child relationships and smoking behavior and its intensity among female and male college students.
Methods: The sample consisted of college students (N=242: 142 smokers, 99 nonsmokers) who were selected using snowball sampling method among the students of Guilan University. Participants completed the parent-child relationship survey and Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence. Binary and multinomial logistic regressions were used for analyzing.
Results: Results showed that mother-child relationship, but not father-child relationship, was the significant predictor of smoking status. Also, mother-child relationship could predict low to moderate levels of dependence on nicotine. Finally, among male students, mother-child relationship was the significant predictor of smoking. Neither mother-child nor father-child relationships were the significant predictors of smoking status among female students.
Conclusion: Further research is needed to clear our understanding of gender-specific correlates of smoking among youth.

Objective: Anxiety is one of the most common disorders of childhood. The treatment Interaction therapy can be used for determining anxiety symptomsis . In line with this, the Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) has been successful in America as well as in some other countries. However, the application of this approach was more limited in Asia. The present study aimed at evaluating the extent of the effect of PCIT approach on child’s anxiety level according to mother’s anxiety index. 
Methods: This randomized controlled trial was conducted at Bijan Center for Substance Abuse Treatment in Tehran, Iran, from December 1, 2013 to November 1, 2014. It involved parents referred to two addiction clinics for methadone maintenance treatment in regions of 7 and 9 in Tehran. A sample of 72 mothers and children (aged between 19 and 41 years with an average age of 29.4 years) were selected by convenient sampling method. According to the assumed cutting point score in anxiety index (response rate=94%), the subjects were assigned to two groups, i.e., control and experimental. Based on the three levels of mother’s anxiety, i.e., low, medium, and high levels (response rate=91%), the subjects were sub-divided into six groups. PCIT protocol was presented to experimental groups during the six weekly sessions. A pretest and a posttest (after 12 weeks of training) were administered to the participants. The analysis of data was done by two-way factorial variance analysis test (ANOVA), Scheffe Post-hoc test, and Chi-square using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 20 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). 
Results: The results showed that PCIT has been effective in reducing the anxiety among children whose mothers had low anxiety level (P<0.001) while it was not effective in reducing the anxiety symptoms in children whose mothers had medium and high anxiety levels (P>0.05). Confidence interval of scores of children’s anxiety in the group of mothers with low anxiety was 95%, which was estimated to be 6.94(3.68-10.19) in experimental group and 12.91 (9.59-16.22) in control group. 
Conclusion: Implications of these protocols are discussed with regard to their unique potential to address the clinical needs of young children with internalizing problems. However, further research into the evaluation of PCIT using a randomized controlled trial is recommendable.